专八人文知识需知的美国名人--约翰.亚当斯

专八人文知识需知的美国名人--约翰.亚当斯

　　英语专八人文知识涵盖的知识面较广，考生们需要平时多积累小常识，这样在专八考试中才能游刃有余，新东方在线整理了专八人文知识需知的美国名人系列知识点供考生们参考。

　　约翰·亚当斯(John Adams，1735年10月30日-1826年7月4日)是美国第一任副总统(1789年-1797年)，其后接替乔治·华盛顿成为美国第二任总统(1797年-1801年)。亚当斯亦是《独立宣言》签署者之一，被美国人视为最重要的开国元勋之一，同华盛顿、杰斐逊和富兰克林齐名。他的长子约翰·昆西·亚当斯后当选为美国第六任总统。

　　John Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) wasthe sixth President of the United States from March 4, 1825, toMarch 4, 1829. He was also an American diplomat and served in both the Senate and House ofRepresentatives. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican,and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. Adams was the son of President John Adams and AbigailAdams. The name "Quincy" came from Abigail's maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, afterwhom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. As a diplomat, Adams was involved in many internationalnegotiations, and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine as Secretary of State. Historians agree hewas one of the great diplomats in American history.

　　As president, he proposed a program of modernization and educational advancement, but wasstymied by Congress, controlled by his enemies. Adams lost his 1828 bid for re-election to AndrewJackson. In doing so, Adams became the first President since his father to serve a single term. Aspresident, Adams presented a vision of national greatness resting on economic growth and astrong federal government, but his presidency was not a success as he lacked political adroitness,popularity or a network of supporters, and ran afoul of politicians eager to undercut him.

　　Adams is best known as a diplomat who shaped American's foreign policy in line with his deeplyconservative and ardently nationalist commitment to America's republican values. More recently hehas been portrayed as the exemplar and moral leader in an era of modernization when newtechnologies and networks of infrastructure and communication brought to the people messagesof religious revival, social reform, and party politics, as well as moving goods, money and peopleever more rapidly and efficiently.

　　Adams was elected a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts after leaving office, the onlypresident ever to do so, serving for the last 17 years of his life. In the House he became a leadingopponent of the Slave Power and argued that if a civil war ever broke out the president couldabolish slavery by using his war powers, which Abraham Lincoln partially did during the AmericanCivil War in the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. Deeply troubled by slavery, Adams correctlypredicted the dissolution of the Union on the issue, though the series of bloody slave insurrectionshe foresaw never came to pass

　　Secretary of State

　　Adams served as Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President James Monroe from 1817 until1825, a tenure during which he was instrumental in the acquisition of Florida. Typically, his viewsconcurred with those espoused by Monroe. As Secretary of State, he negotiated the Adams-OnísTreaty and wrote the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European nations against meddling in theaffairs of the Western Hemisphere. Adams' negotiated an agreement with Britain for a joint patrolagainst the slave trade, but it was watered down by the Senate and ultimately rejected.[citationneeded] On Independence Day 1821, in response to those who advocated American support forSpanish America's independence movement from Spain, Adams gave a speech in which he saidthat American policy was moral support for but not armed intervention on behalf of independencemovements, stating that America "goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy."After theNapoleonic wars, Spain lost control of most of the American colonies. They revolted and declaredindependence. Rebels used American ports to equip privateers to attack Spanish ships, a practicedefended by Henry Clay, who severely criticized both Monroe and Adams for their more cautiouswait-and-see policy. The Floridas, still Spanish territory but with no Spanish presence to speak of,became a refuge for runaway slaves and Indian raiders. Spain was not in charge. Monroe sent inGeneral Andrew Jackson who pushed the Seminole Indians south, executed two British merchantswho were supplying weapons, deposed one governor and named another, and left an Americangarrison in occupation. Jackson thought he had Washington's approval, but the orders werevague. President Monroe and all his cabinet, except Adams, believed Jackson had exceeded hisinstructions. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun proposed to punish Jackson. Adams argued thatsince Spain had proved incapable of policing her territories, the United States was obliged to act inself-defense. Adams so ably justified Jackson's conduct as to silence protests either from Spain orBritain. Congress debated the question, with Clay as the leading opponent of Jackson, but it wouldnot disapprove of what Jackson had done.

　　Adams negotiated the "Transcontinental Treaty" with Spain in 1819 that turned Florida over to theU.S. and resolved border issues regarding the Louisiana Purchase. The treaty recognized Spanishcontrol of Texas (a claim taken up by Mexico when it declared independence of Spain). The post ofSecretary of State was the normal path to the White House. After 1820 Adams, intent on winningthe presidency, was less successful at the State Department. He failed to make key commercialtreaties because he feared the necessary American concessions would be used to attack hiscandidacy. Instead the nation suffered from trade wars that could have been prevented.

　　1824–25 presidential election

　　As the election of 1824 drew near people began looking for candidates. New England votersadmired Adams' patriotism and political skills and it was mainly due to their support that he enteredthe race. The old caucus system of the Democratic-Republican Party had collapsed; indeed theentire First Party System had collapsed and the election was a free-for-all based on regionalsupport. Adams had a strong base in New England. His opponents included John C. Calhoun,William Crawford, Henry Clay and the hero of New Orleans, Andrew Jackson. During the campaignCalhoun dropped out, and Crawford fell ill giving further support to the other candidates. Whenthe election day came, Andrew Jackson won, although narrowly, pluralities of the popular andelectoral votes, but not the necessary majority of electoral votes.

　　Under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment, the presidential election was thrown to the House ofRepresentatives to vote on the top three candidates: Jackson, Adams, and Crawford. Clay hadcome in fourth place and thus was ineligible, but he retained considerable power and influence asSpeaker of the House. Crawford was unviable due to the stroke.

　　Clay's personal dislike for Jackson and the similarity of his American System to Adams' position ontariffs and internal improvements caused him to throw his support to Adams, who was elected bythe House on February 9, 1825, on the first ballot. Adams' victory shocked Jackson, who hadgained the plurality of the electoral and popular votes and fully expected to be elected president.When Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State—the position that Adams and his threepredecessors had held before becoming President—Jacksonian Democrats were outraged, andclaimed that Adams and Clay had struck a "corrupt bargain." This contention overshadowedAdams' term and greatly contributed to Adams' loss to Jackson four years later, in the 1828election.

　　Presidency 1825–1829

　　Adams served as the sixth President of the United States from March 4, 1825, to March 4, 1829.He took the oath of office on a book of laws, instead of the more traditional Bible, to preserve theseparation of church and state.

　　Politics

　　Adams' singular intelligence, vast experience, unquestionable integrity, and devotion to his countryshould have made him a great chief executive. But, like his father, he lacked political sense and anability to command public support, and his contentious spirit spelled defeat for him personally andfor many of his policies. He proposed a comprehensive program of internal improvements (roads,ports and canals), the creation of a national university, and federal support for the arts andsciences. He favored a high tariff to encourage the building of factories, and restricted land sales toslow the movement west. Opposition from the states' rights faction quickly killed the proposals,[18]Even more serious was the attack by the followers of Jackson, who accused him of being a partnerto a "corrupt bargain" to obtain Clay's support in the election and then appoint him secretary ofstate. Refusing to play politics, Adams did little or nothing to build up a personal followingcommitted to his re-election. He refused to discharge federal officeholders when they activelyjoined the opposition, and even considered appointing Jackson to his cabinet. Losing control ofCongress in the elections of 1826, he still persisted in his independent policies and thus insured hisown overwhelming defeat by Jackson two years later. He was particularly embittered by theunfounded accusations of fraud and extravagance made against him during the campaign by hisopponents (not to mention the false accusation that he had pimped for the Czar of Russia). TheAdams administration recorded no major legislative, diplomatic, military or administrativeachievements. Congress did pass the high Tariff of 1828—the "tariff of abominations" that createda violent outcry especially in South Carolina. Jackson defeated Adams in a landslide in 1828, andcreated the modern Democratic party thus inaugurating the Second Party System.

　　Domestic policies

　　During his term, Adams worked on developing the American System, consisting of a high tariff tosupport internal improvements such as road-building, and a national bank to encourageproductive enterprise and form a national currency. In his first annual message to Congress,Adams presented an ambitious program for modernization that included roads, canals, a nationaluniversity, an astronomical observatory, and other initiatives. The support for his proposals waslimited, even from his own party. His critics accused him of unseemly arrogance because of hisnarrow victory. Most of his initiatives were opposed in Congress by Jackson's supporters, whoremained outraged over the 1824 election.

　　Nonetheless, some of his proposals were adopted, specifically the extension of the CumberlandRoad into Ohio with surveys for its continuation west to St. Louis; the beginning of theChesapeake and Ohio Canal, the construction of the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal and thePortland to Louisville Canal around the falls of the Ohio; the connection of the Great Lakes to theOhio River system in Ohio and Indiana; and the enlargement and rebuilding of the Dismal SwampCanal in North Carolina.

　　One of the issues which divided the administration was protective tariffs. Henry Clay was a leadingadvocate, but Vice President John C. Calhoun was an opponent. After Adams lost control ofCongress in 1827, the situation became more complicated. By signing into law the Tariff of 1828 (also known as the Tariff of Abominations), extremely unpopular in the South, he limited hischances to achieve more during his presidency.

　　Adams and Clay set up a new party, the National Republican Party, but it never took root in thestates. In the elections of 1826, Adams and his supporters lost control of Congress. New YorkSenator Martin Van Buren, a future president and follower of Jackson, became one of the leaders ofthe Senate.

　　Much of Adams' political difficulties were due to his refusal, on principle, to replace members of hisadministration who supported Jackson (contending that no one should be removed from officeexcept for incompetence). For example, his Postmaster General, John McLean, continued in officethrough the Adams administration, although he was using his powers of patronage to curry favorwith Jacksonites.

　　Another blow to Adams' presidency was his generous policy toward Native Americans. Settlers onthe frontier, who were constantly seeking to move westward, cried for a more expansionist policy.When the federal government tried to assert authority on behalf of the Cherokees, the governorof Georgia took up arms. In contrast, Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren instigated the policyof Indian removal to the west (i.e. the Trail of Tears). Adams defended his domestic agenda ascontinuing Monroe's policies.

　　Foreign policies

　　Adams is regarded as one of the greatest diplomats in American history, and during his tenure asSecretary of State he was the chief designer of the Monroe Doctrine.

　　On July 4, 1821, he gave an address to Congress:

　　... But she goes not abroad, in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to thefreedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own.

　　During his term as president, however, Adams achieved little of consequence in foreign affairs. Areason for this was the opposition he faced in Congress, where his rivals prevented him fromsucceeding.

　　Among the few diplomatic achievements of his administration were treaties of reciprocity with anumber of nations, including Denmark, Mexico, the Hanseatic League, the Scandinavian countries,Prussia and Austria. However, thanks to the successes of Adams' diplomacy during his previouseight years as Secretary of State, most of the foreign policy issues he would have faced had beenresolved by the time he became President.

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