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　　Test Six

　　SECTION A MINI-LECTURE

　　In this section, you will hear a mini-lecture. You will hear the lecture ONCE ONLY. While listening, take notes on the important points. Your notes will not be marked, but you will need them to complete a gap-filling task after the mini-lecture. When the lecture is over, you'll be given two minutes to check your notes, and another 10 minutes to complete the gap-filling task. Now listen to the mini-lecture.

　　Good morning. Today's lecture is about the motivation for words. First, what is motivation? Motivation deals with the connection between name and sense. In the previous lecture, we have mentioned two rival schools of thought: one school is the Naturalists, who believed that there was an intrinsic connection between sound and sense; the other school is the Conventionalists, who held that the connection between sound and sense was purely a matter of tradition and convention. The first motivation is the onomatopoeic motivation.

　　The word onomatopoeia is derived from the Greek word onomatopoeia, which means "word-making". Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound. The sounds of such words as cuckoo, ding-dong, buzz seem to be appropriate to their senses. But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic words constitute only a small part of the vocabulary. According to Stephen Ullmann, onomatopoeic formation can be divided into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia. Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of sound by sound. Here the sound is truly an "echo to the sense". Terms like crack, growl, hum, roar, squeak, whiz and a great many fall into this category.

　　Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain sounds and sound-sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship. In this form, the sounds evoke a movement, as in such words: quiver, wriggle, slither. The sound may also evoke some physical or moral quality, usually unfavorable. For example, gloom, slimy, sloppy, sloth. Some of these onomatopoeic terms have certain elements in common. For example, the sound /sn/ may express three types of experiences. They are, first, "breath-noise" as in sniff, snuff, snore, snort, second, "quick separation or movement" as in snip, snap, snatch, and third, "creeping" as in snake, snail, sneak. Final groups have similar functions. For example, the combination of — are at the end of a word suggests "big light or noise" as in blare, flare, glare, stare; the combination of -ump at the end of a word suggests "heavy fall" as in dump, crump, plump, slump, thump.

　　Another interesting feature of onomatopoeic patterns is that they often work by vowel alternation. By substituting one vowel for another, one can express different noises. For example: snip---snap, sniff---snuff, flip---flap---flop. Closely connected to this tendency are reduplicated words and phrases, such as wishy-washy, tit-tat, tick-tock, click-clack. It should be noted that many onomatopoeic forms are based on alternations of not vowels but of initial consonants, such as higgledy-piggledy, helter-skelter, namby-pamby, roly-poly etc.

　　The second motivation is semantic motivation. Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association. When we speak of the bonnet of a car, a coat of paint, or when we speak of potatoes cooked in their jackets, these expressions are motivated by the similarity between the garments and the objects referred to. In the same way, when we say the cloth for the clergy, "town and gown" for "town and university", there is semantic motivation due to the fact that the garments in question are closely associated with the persons they designate. Both types of expressions are figurative: the former are metaphoric and the latter are metonymic. We can see that semantic motivation is closely connected with figures of speech. Here I'll name three of them.

　　First, metaphor. Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. For example: "he has a heart of stone". "The curtain of night has fallen." Another figure of speech is metonymy. It is a device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the turf for horse-racing, the White House for the US president. Similar to metonymy is synecdoche, which means the substitution of a part for a whole or a whole for a part, as in bread for food, the army for a soldier, etc.

　　Apart from onomatopoeic motivation and semantic motivation, there is also logical motivation. Logical motivation deals with the problem of defining a concept by means of logic. A definition has two forms. A common form of definition is"This means such and such." "Fat" means "having much flesh". Another form of definition is "This means the same as that" or"This is equivalent to that". "Fat" means "the same as obese'. These two forms of the definition show that a definition has two parts: the word being defined, and the definition that is being made.

　　Giving a definition involves two steps to be taken. One step is to identify the concept of a genus, that is, a class of things made up of two or more subordinate classes or species. The other step is to identify the attributes distinguishing one species from other similar species in the same genus. A combination of these two approaches helps to define a concept. For example, in the 1950's, there appeared a new crisis gripping the minds of part of the American youth. These young people felt disturbance and anxiety about their personality development and adjustment. This crisis is called an identity crisis. The word "crisis' is a genus, which consists of two or more species, such as spiritual crisis, economic crisis, political crisis, etc. The expression "identity crisis" is used to distinguish itself from other crisis.

　　So far we have covered the three motivations for words: onomatopoeic motivation, semantic motivation, and logical motivation. However, it is not always easy to identify clearly the motivation for each word in our vocabulary. In such case, we may say the motivation is lost. There may be two factors which lead to loss of motivation. One is a change in the morphological structure of a word, and the other factor is change of meaning.

　　In next lecture, we'll discuss these two changes in detail. This is the end of today's lecture. Thank you for your attention.

　　Section B INTERVIEW

　　In this section you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Questions 1 to 5 are based on an interview. At the end of the interview, you will be given 10 seconds to answer each of the following 5 questions. Now listen to the interview.

　　Interviewer(W): Today I'd like to welcome Edward Fox, a seasoned real-estate agent, who is going to talk to us about buying a house. Hello, Edward.

　　Edward Fox (M): Hello.

　　W: Now Edward, for most people buying a house is a major life event, and probably the single most expensive item they are ever likely to buy. What precautions do they have to take before a real purchase? Can you give some suggestions?

　　M: You are right in saying buying a house costs a lot. But as to me, the most important thing to consider before buying any property is the location.

　　W: Location?

　　M: Right. Because it is where you plan to spend a large part of your life. Or, indeed, the rest of your life in some circumstances. Therefore, consider the type of life you enjoy leading. If you are a very sociable person who enjoys nightclubs and discos, you may consider something close to a city. Anyway, a city is convenient for all types of nightlife.

　　W: Then, for those who seek a quiet life, do you recommend a house in the countryside?

　　M: Well, countryside is a tranquil place. However, do remember that proximity to the place of work also counts. Indeed, we spend most of our life at work, and you don't want to have to spend two or more hours every day traveling to work, do you? Therefore, transport is of the utmost importance. City suburbs, however, are often conveniently located for commuting to work, or for shopping, without being in the heart of a busy city.

　　W: But houses in the suburbs are far more expensive than those in cities.

　　M: They seem to be, but actually houses located in cities can often exceed the price of suburban houses, so check out the prices. You may be surprised.

　　W: Really? So we should consider our place of work and personality in choosing the location. Is that so?

　　M: I'm afraid you have to take family into consideration as well. You may prefer a house that is away from a busy street or main road. And of course, remember that children have to attend school. If you have children, or you plan to have children, location is a very important factor. And of course, remember that a family influences the size of the property.

　　W: Oh, I see. How many types of houses can we choose?

　　M: There are various types of houses. The first is called detached houses, which stand alone, and are not joined by another building. Then there are semi-detached houses, which are the most common. This is because they are, in fact, two houses joined together, and therefore take up less space. And there are town houses, too, which are many houses joined together to form a long row. But don't think that town houses are less expensive than semi-detached houses. They rarely are. This is because they are usually built in cities where the price of property is very expensive.

　　W: Then what about old houses? They must be cheaper than new ones.

　　M: Maybe they are. But if the house is too old, you may be faced with expensive repairs and renovation bills. So have a house thoroughly checked by a professional surveyor before you decide to buy.

　　W: I agree. It's economical to buy old houses only when they are in good condition. By the way, a lot of property has a garden attached to it. Do you think it's a good choice?

　　M: It's true that a lot of property has a garden. If you enjoy gardening, that's fine. But if you don't enjoy gardening then you may prefer a small garden, as opposed to a big one. But even if you do enjoy gardening it is important to remember that gardens take up a lot of your time. So keeping a garden in good order may be very difficult if you work long hours.

　　W: You are quite right. Any other suggestions?

　　M: One final thing is the general feel of the place. Does it have a good atmosphere? And most important of all, would you feel comfortable living there?

　　W: Edward, I never knew I had to consider so many things while buying a house. Thank you very much for talking with us.

　　M: My pleasure.

　　Section C NEWS BROADCAST

　　In this section, you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Questions 6 to 7 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer each of the two questions. Now listen to the news.

　　This is Nicodemus, the first all-black pioneer town, established on the prairie 128 years ago. Every summer this tiny town holds a homecoming with a gathering and parade to celebrate its heritage.

　　In 1877 freed slaves came to a barren spot in Kansas to make a place where they could determine their own lives.

　　They had been encouraged to come to the barren prairie by unscrupulous land agents. Living in earth-covered huts the settlers used their determination and farming skills and a town began to take shape. Some of the original structures remain.

　　First built were two churches, then a schoolhouse and later a small hotel and a town hall.

　　Today, Nicodemus is like many struggling mid-western towns where the young people leave for the cities. It is now a National Historic Site and tourists and African-Americans from all over come to see where black pioneers built their own town from the ground up.

　　Question 8 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question. Now listen to the news.

　　Mechanized carnival attractions draw big crowds at the Maryland State Fair. But there is another side to this event. It is a scene that looks like it is right off the farm.

　　The fair is a yearly event that helps America's largely urban-dwelling population reconnect with its agrarian roots.

　　Fairs were originated hundreds of years ago in various forms and certainly the fair as we know it is about a hundred years old. It was a place for the agricultural community to get together and show off what they had done over the past year.

　　Farmland scenes like this have become ever less common across the United States. But it seems they will always be preserved at America's state fairs.

　　Questions 9 and 10 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer each of the two questions. Now listen to the news.

　　The World Health Organization warns between 25 and 35 percent of the world population could be affected by a human influenza pandemic, but the WHO says most people would survive.

　　Health experts are meeting at the World Health Organization in Geneva to map out a plan of action to combat the possible spread of avian flu. The World Health Organization Global Influenza Program Director Klaus Stohr says between two and seven million people would die from a mild pandemic and up to 28 million would be hospitalized. He adds everything has to be put into perspective.

　　The WHO calculation is based on the prospect of a mild influenza outbreak, such as those which occurred in 1957 and 1968. Those pandemics killed three million people. It acknowledges that deaths could skyrocket in the event of a severe influenza pandemic, such as the one that swept the world in 1918, killing more than 40 million people.

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