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　　Test Nine

　　SECTION A MINI-LECTURE

　　In this section, you will hear a mini-lecture. You will hear the lecture ONCE ONLY. While listening, take notes on the important points. Your notes will not be marked, but you will need them to complete a gap-filling task after the mini-lecture. When the lecture is over, you'll be given two minutes to check your notes, and another 10 minutes to complete the gap-filling task. Now listen to the mini-lecture.

　　Types and Acceptance

　　Good afternoon, everybody. Today we'll go on with our discussion about "Elements of Culture". We have talked about the element of language, which is viewed by sociologists as the foundation of every culture.

　　Now let's look at the second element—norms. What are norms? Norms can be defined as the established standards of behaviour maintained by a society.

　　Well, you know, all societies have ways of encouraging and enforcing what they view as appropriate behaviour while discouraging and punishing what they consider to be improper conducts. For example, respect for older people is a norm found in China. "Put on some clean clothes for dinner" is a norm followed in America. Bowing deeply to each other when meeting and saying good-bye to people is a norm practised in Japan. These are all norms.

　　In order for a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and understood. For example, when we go to the movies, we typically expect that people will be quiet while the film is showing. Because of this norm, if a member of the audience talks loudly, he may be asked to lower his voice. And when we go to school or go to work, we are expected to be punctual. If someone is late, he or she may feel uneasy and should say sorry to others.

　　Now we'll have a look at the types of norms. Sociologists distinguish norms in two ways. First, norms can be classified as formal and informal. Formal norms have generally been written down and involve strict rules for punishment of violators. Laws are an example of formal norms, because in a political sense, the law is the body of rules, made by government for society, interpreted by the courts, and backed by the state. Besides, the requirements for a college major and rules of a card game are also formal norms.

　　By contrast, informal norms are generally understood but are not precisely recorded. Standards of proper dress are a common example of informal norms. Our society has no specific punishment or sanction if a student comes to college dressed quite differently from everyone else. The most likely response is that he or she might be made fun of by other students for his or her unusual choice of clothing.

　　Second, norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. When classified this way, they are known as mores and folkways. Mores are norms that are regarded highly necessary to the welfare of a society, often because they embody the most valuable principles of a people. Each society demands obedience to its mores, and violation can lead to severe penalties. For example, our society has strong mores against murder and treason. Folkways are norms governing everyday behaviour whose violation raised relatively little concern. For example, walking up a "down" escalator in a department store challenges our standards of appropriate behaviour, but it will not result in a fine or a jail sentence. Folkways play an important role in shaping the daily behaviour of members of a culture.

　　OK, how do people accept norms? Now we'll talk about the acceptance of norms. First, norms, whether mores or folkways, are not followed in all situations. In some cases, people evade a norm because they know it is weakly enforced. For example, although smoking in public is forbidden, we often find people smoking in buses or other public places.

　　Second, norms are violated in some instances because one norm conflicts with another. For example, suppose you live in an apartment building and one night you hear the screams of the woman next door. She is being beaten by her husband. If you decided to intervene by calling the police, you are violating the norm of "mind your own business" or "don't interfere with other family's business", while at the same time you are following the norm of assisting a victim of violence.

　　Then, even when norms do not conflict, there are always exceptions to any norm. The same action, under different circumstances, can cause one to be viewed either as a hero or as a villain. For example, Eaves-dropping on telephone conversation is normally considered illegal or mean, but it can be done by the police to obtain valid evidence for a criminal trial. Even killing another human being is tolerated as a form of self-defence and is actually rewarded in warfare.

　　Acceptance of norms is also subjected to change, as the political, economic, and social conditions of a culture is transformed. For example, under traditional norms, a woman was expected to marry, rear children, and remain at home if her husband could support the family. However, these norms have been changing in recent decades, and more and more women are ready to or encouraged to have her own career and support the family together with her husband. As support for traditional norms weakens, people will feel free to violate them more frequently and openly and will be less likely to receive serious negative sanctions for doing so.

　　Well, time is almost up for today's lecture. To sum up, norms are established standards of behaviour maintained by a society. They are distinguished in two ways, that is, formal or informal norms according to their formality, and mores and folkways according to their relative importance to society. People in a culture normally follow its norms, but acceptance of norms differs in different situations and social conditions.

　　Next time we'll go on with other elements of culture, sanctions and values. See you then.

　　Section B INTERVIEW

　　In this section you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Questions 1 to 5 are based on an interview. At the end of the interview, you will be given 10 seconds to answer each of the following 5 questions. Now listen to the interview.

　　Interviewer (W): I first encountered Parker Rossman' s work in the early 1990s via his groundbreaking book, The Emerging Worldwide Electronic Universit

　　y: Information Age Global Higher Education (Rossman, 1992 ). When I saw that his current project is a freely accessible online book-in-progress on the future of lifelong and higher education, I asked if he would allow Technology Source readers to learn about and participate in the project. He graciously consented to this interview. Parker, I note on your Web site that you have three book-length volumes concerning the future of higher education: Volume I, The Future of Higher Lifelong Education and Virtual Space; Volume II, Research On Global Crises, Still Primitive; and Volume III, Future Learning and Teaching. What struck me in particular was your note asking readers to contact you if they saw errors, or if they could contribute Web site URLs or in terms of information that were pertinent to the material. As these notes indicate, you clearly regard this to be a work in progress. Certainly this is a great way to develop the manuscripts relatively quickly. What do you expect to accomplish via this technique?

　　Parker Rossman (M) : My objectives are to examine the ways in which a global virtual education system can come into existence and to raise questions about needed research on learning, teaching, and overcoming the problems ( such as hunger, bad health, war, and revolution) that stand in the way of providing education for everyone in the world. I realize that education for all is impossible, but perhaps only in the sense that the United States, out of necessity, accomplished what was "impossible" after the attack on Pearl Harbor. I assume that H.G. Wells was right when he said that civilization is in a race between education and disaster. So I am willing to be audacious—as someone retired and with no axe to grind—and to initiate a project that might at least stimulate thought and discussion. For 30 years or more I have been studying the university, higher education, and academia in the developing world. In the 1980s I began to see the emergence and potential of a global virtual university; this insight culminated in a book that was widely read and used and that led to my being invited to lecture in various countries. The next year Praeger published it as a paperback in their Contributions to the Study of Education series. Developing world delegates to the 1997 UNESCO conference on higher education in Paris complained that it was too expensive for them. So I said that I would put a sequel online, free to anyone in the world. I asked that, in return, they send me feedback and suggested links. And I have now accomplished this.

　　W: Doesn't your online manuscript deal with far more than higher education? Your classification is a bit confusing to me, because each volume looks like a book. Why not say that you have three books on the Web?

　　M: It must be one book if it is to be holistic. It should introduce all of the needs and problems that must be dealt with at once as we enter a time of lifelong education. "Education for all" must include programs for pre-kindergarten children, for primary and secondary school age learners, and for college students. It also must include continuing educational programs that foster job skills, career planning, and hobbies as well as special interest programs for senior citizens. Instead of talking about a "global university", the time has come to explore possibilities for a global virtual education system.

　　W: Then why do you keep speaking of the "future of the university"?

　　M: It is also my assumption that the university, however it changes, will continue to be the major research center for all education. It will be a crucial focus of educational vision and the gathering place of scholars and educators. There will continue to be residential campuses for those who can afford them, and higher education institutions will continue to be the springboard for online education for all—all places, all ages, all needs, lifelong, in the world.

　　W: What kinds of constructive criticism or negative feedback are you getting?

　　M: Well, the list is long. I try to cover too much. Some information is out of date. Web URLs disappear, which limits my ability to link to the latest research as a means of avoiding excessive detail in the text. Also, different readers come with expectations that are not met. In discussing technology, for instance, how can we address those who are technological experts and those in the developing world whose knowledge is still limited? My project seems out of focus in that it struggles with the nature and future of the university in a time of lifelong education, and with the added problem of how to provide education for everyone in the world.

　　W: Are you encouraged that others are getting involved?

　　M: Recognizing the perils in my experiment, I must be prepared for all kinds of criticism, even antagonism. Perhaps now that I am retired, I am better prepared to face antagonism and scorn than those who have jobs and careers to consider. However, I see the whole project as an initial effort that might later be enlarged to be more useful to those who need to discuss current problems and future issues. I see it as nothing definitive, but as an outline on which to hang all kinds of ideas and topics that might stimulate discussion, imagination, and conversation.

　　W: Parker, via this interview and the subsequent web cast, many more people will learn of this creative, exciting, and valuable project. Be prepared for a flood of eager volunteers!

　　Section C NEWS BROADCAST

　　In this section, you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Questions 6 to 7 are based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer each question. Now listen to the news.

　　MAINZ, Germany—At least 4,000 demonstrators vented their anger at the visit of US President George W. Bush to Germany but were kept well away from the security ring around him.

　　The protesters brandished placards reading "Terrorist No. 1" and "Bush swim home" while police helicopters circled overhead. The organizers of the rallies, an alliance of pacifist groups under the motto "Not Welcome, Mr. Bush", said they were expecting 10,000 people to attend, but police put the numbers at about 4,000.

　　Question 8 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question. Now listen to the news.

　　CHINA'S population will officially reach 1.3 billion by Thursday, according to the National Bureau of Statistics.

　　Some experts have claimed the government's family planning policies of the past 30 years delayed the arrival of that figure by four years.

　　It is expected to increase by about 10 million people annually and to peak at 1.46 billion in the mid 2030s, Xinhua has quoted population experts as saying last year.

　　Question 9 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question. Now listen to the news.

　　Russian President Vladimir Putin says Russia will support any option of reforming the UN's Security Council approved by consensus. Russian President Vladimir Putin says debate on the United Nations reform would not split the organization.

　　Putin made the remarks after talks with French President Jacques Chirac and German Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder. Putin said that Russia will support any option of reforming the United Nations' Security Council approved by consensus. Putin said Russia will continue supporting Germany as candidate to the seat of permanent member of the UN Security Council.

　　Jacques Chirac and Gerhard Schroeder came to Kaliningrad at Putin's invitation to mark the 750th anniversary of the exclave's founding.

　　Question 10 is based on the following news. At the end of the news item, you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question. Now listen to the news.

　　The World Heritage Committee (WHC) overlooking conservation of global heritage sites will convene its annual meeting next week in Durban, South Africa, to review 42 proposed sites for inscription on the prestigious World Heritage List.

　　Extensions for nine sites that have already been inscribed will also be proposed during the 29th session of the WHC under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), according to the organization's official website. The proposed sites include 28 cultural sites, 10 natural sites and 4 mixed sites presented by 44 countries, including Albania, China and the host country South Africa.

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