专业八级英语听力笔记：4

　　新东方在线专四专八频道给大家整理的专业八级英语听力笔记：4,希望能够对大家的专四专八考试备考有所帮助，更多有关专四专八的备考内容，欢迎随时关注新东方在线专四专八频道。

　　Chapter 4 Morphology

　　l What is morphology?

　　n The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.

　　n Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with

　　meaning.

　　n Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structure and the

　　formation of words.

　　l Morphemes and allomorphs

　　n The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.

　　n A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.

　　n “zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives

　　u Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality.

　　Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these

　　two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one

　　“zero form” of a morpheme.

　　u Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this

　　case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to

　　indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.

　　l Free and bound morphemes

　　n Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are

　　called free morphemes.

　　n Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing.

　　They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are

　　called bound morphemes.

　　n The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is

　　whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.

　　n Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the

　　affixes (prefixes and suffixes).

　　l Inflexional and derivational morphemes

　　n Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of

　　nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.

　　n Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms

　　to construct new words.

　　u English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.

　　u Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into

　　other morphemes.

　　u The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words

　　is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.

　　l Conclusion: classification of morphemes

　　n Morphemes

　　u Free morphemes

　　u Bound morphemes

　　l Inflexional

　　l Derivational: affixes

　　n Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s

　　n Suffixes

　　l Formation of new words

　　n Derivation

　　u Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.

　　u Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a

　　derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word

　　friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,

　　etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed

　　complex derivation.

　　u Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.

　　Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language

　　origin.

　　u Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.

　　u Some English suffixes also change the word stress.

　　n Compounding

　　u Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination

　　of free morphemes.

　　u The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from

　　the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three

　　classes.

　　u In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of

　　the word.

　　u The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the

　　components.

　　n Conversion

　　u Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into

　　another class.

　　u Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.

　　n Clipping

　　u Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting

　　one or more syllables.

　　u Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal

　　occasions.

　　u Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in

　　formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym

　　(gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their

　　complete form.

　　n Blending

　　u Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-

　　morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a

　　meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor

　　+ hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle

　　school students – “plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a

　　bike).

　　n Back-formation

　　u Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a

　　real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from

　　television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele-

　　(far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in

　　English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television

　　as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.

　　n Acronyms and abbreviations

　　u Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial

　　letters of all words in a phrase or title.

　　u Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than

　　abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.

　　u This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and

　　scientific terminology.

　　n Eponyms

　　u Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or

　　places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the

　　fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he

　　could eat while gambling.

　　n Coinage

　　u Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing

　　morphemes.

　　u This way of word formation is especially common in cases where

　　industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.

　　n For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my

　　notes of Practical English Grammar

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