2022年英语专八听力笔记（3）

　　新东方在线专四专八频道给大家整理的2022年英语专八听力笔记（3）,希望能够对大家的专四专八考试备考有所帮助，更多有关专四专八的备考内容，欢迎随时关注新东方在线专四专八频道。

　　Chapter 3 Phonology

　　l What is phonology?

　　n Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.

　　n Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.

　　n Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.

　　u What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?

　　u What sounds vary in what ways in what context?

　　u What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

　　l Phonemes and allophones

　　n A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.

　　n The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.

　　n We use allophones to realize phonemes.

　　l Discovering phonemes

　　n Contrastive distribution – phonemes

　　u If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.

　　u Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.

　　l A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.

　　l Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.

　　u The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.

　　u Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.

　　n Complementary distribution – allophones

　　u Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.

　　u If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.

　　n Free variation

　　u If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.

　　l Distinctive and non-distinctive features

　　n Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.

　　n Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.

　　l Phonological rules

　　n Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.

　　n What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.

　　n The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.

　　n There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.

　　l [+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_

　　l [-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_

　　l Syllable structure

　　n A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.

　　n Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.

　　n The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.

　　l Sequence of phonemes

　　n Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.

　　n Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.

　　n Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.

　　n When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill systematic gaps.

　　l Suprasegmental features

　　n Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.

　　n These features are distinctive features.

　　n Stress

　　u Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.

　　u Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.

　　u If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.

　　u In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.

　　n Intonation

　　u When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.

　　u Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.

　　u The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.

　　u In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.

　　n Tone

　　u Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.

　　u The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.

　　u Chinese is a typical tone language.

　　以上就是新东方在线专四专八频道给大家整理的2022年英语专八听力笔记（3）,希望对大家有所帮助，更多备考内容，欢迎随时关注新东方在线专四专八频道。

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